1/72.2.1 Introduction
Programmed instruction (PI) was the forerunner of computer assisted instruction (CAI). It used some kinds of learning machine instead of computers. Programmed instruction, which was based on Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was booming in the 60's and the early 70's but disappeared quickly.
B.F. Skinner's theory was based on the idea that learning is a function of change in behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's reaction (response) to events (stimuli) which occur in the environment. A response produces an action, like saying a word or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is rewarded (reinforced), the individual is conditioned to respond in the same manner the next time this stimulus occurs. This was closely related to Pawlov's classical form of behaviorism. A characteristic of Skinner's operant conditioning is that the individual can emit responses without an external stimulus [Ski58]. The response can occur spontaneously but reinforcement can increase the probability of such operant behavior. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response, and could be a verbal praise or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction.
But how was this operant conditioning paradigm realised in programmed instruction? First, the material to be learned was split into very small pieces called frames. At the end of each frame the student had to answer a question (the stimulus). A correct answer was rewarded immediately and therefore the student was reinforced. To avoid negative reinforcement, little aids helped the student to find the right answer.
Skinner thought that such learning programs could give the right amount of reinforcement much better than human beings and therefore could replace teachers. The falseness of this theory is well known nowadays. Nevertheless many programs were based on Skinner's theory. In particular the U.S. Army was interested in so called drill and practice programs and supported Skinner's research [NW89].
2.2.1 Introduction
Programmed instruction (PI) was the forerunner of computer assisted instruction (CAI). It used some kinds of learning machine instead of computers. Programmed instruction, which was based on Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was booming in the 60's and the early 70's but disappeared quickly.
B.F. Skinner's theory was based on the idea that learning is a function of change in behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's reaction (response) to events (stimuli) which occur in the environment. A response produces an action, like saying a word or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is rewarded (reinforced), the individual is conditioned to respond in the same manner the next time this stimulus occurs. This was closely related to Pawlov's classical form of behaviorism. A characteristic of Skinner's operant conditioning is that the individual can emit responses without an external stimulus [Ski58]. The response can occur spontaneously but reinforcement can increase the probability of such operant behavior. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response, and could be a verbal praise or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction.
But how was this operant conditioning paradigm realised in programmed instruction? First, the material to be learned was split into very small pieces called frames. At the end of each frame the student had to answer a question (the stimulus). A correct answer was rewarded immediately and therefore the student was reinforced. To avoid negative reinforcement, little aids helped the student to find the right answer.
Skinner thought that such learning programs could give the right amount of reinforcement much better than human beings and therefore could replace teachers. The falseness of this theory is well known nowadays. Nevertheless many programs were based on Skinner's theory. In particular the U.S. Army was interested in so called drill and practice programs and supported Skinner's research [NW89].
 2.2.1.1 A Historical Introduction to Authoring Systems |
| 2.2.1.1 A Historical Introduction to Authoring Systems |
| 2.2.1.2 PLATO |
| 2.2.1.2 PLATO |
| 2.2.1.3 TICCIT |
| 2.2.1.3 TICCIT |